Royal free elections in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Political games, social communication, diplomacy
Edited by Aleksandra Ziober and Alessandro Boccolini
Miguel Conde Pazos
Alfonso X el Sabio University (SPAIN)
ABSTRACT: This article analyzes the involvement of the Spanish Monarchy in the royal elections of Poland-Lithuania during the 16th and 17th centuries. Spanish intervention, closely coordinated with the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs, was framed within a family strategy to maintain influence in Central Europe. Spanish diplomats supported imperial candidacies, prioritizing the Emperor’s interests over their own, which limited their autonomy in the process. Over these two centuries, diplomatic strategy shifted from dynastic expansion, aimed at placing a Habsburg family member on the Polish throne, to a more pragmatic policy that sought to secure Spanish interests by backing other favorable candidacies. Despite the diplomatic and financial efforts deployed, Spanish interventions faced significant obstacles, including distrust between the branches of the House of Austria and financial constraints. An analysis of the cost of these interventions reveals that, while a Habsburg never ascended the throne, most elected monarchs were aligned with the interests of the House of Austria, ensuring Spain’s sustained influence in the region. This paper provides a comprehensive view of the diplomatic, financial, and political complexities surrounding Spanish intervention in the Polish-Lithuanian elections.
KEYWORDS: Spanish diplomacy; Poland-Lithuania; Elecions; Habsburg dynasty; Dynastic expansion.
Kateřina Pražáková
University of South Bohemia (CZECH REPUBLIC)
The Secret Candidature of William of Rosenberg to the Polish Throne in 1574 and 1575
ABSTRACT: The chapter examines the negotiations carried out by the Bohemian magnate William of Rosenberg in the early 1570s. Following the death of Sigismund II Augustus, William, alongside Vratislaus of Pernštejn, led a mission to secure the Polish throne for a son of Emperor Maximilian II. Their efforts failed when Henry of Valois was elected king in spring 1573. Despite this, William impressed some Polish nobles, who re-established contact after Henry fled Poland in June 1574, suggesting William as a candidate for the vacant throne. Attracted by the opportunity, William covertly financed his supporters to promote his candidature. However, he had to keep his ambitions hidden, as Emperor Maximilian II sought the throne again for his relatives and would view William’s ambitions as betrayal. A complex game of secret offers and negotiations began. The exchange of encrypted letters is particularly noteworthy. However, William of Rosenberg did not continue the negotiations until the electoral assembly, but withdrew his candidacy in summer 1575, before the electoral assembly took place.
KEYWORDS: William of Rosenberg, Polish elections, encrypted letters, diplomacy in the 16th century, secret negotiations.
JUSTYNA GALUSZKA
Jagiellonian University (POLAND)
The role of Stanislaw Stadnicki (c. 1551−1610) during the third free election
ABSTRACT: The article discusses Stanislaw Stadnicki’s role in the events surrounding the third election in 1587, focusing on his involvement in the camp of the Maximilianists, i.e. Habsburg supporters. The internal differences within this faction are shown, as well as Stadnicki’s actions and his military significance in the context of the struggle for the throne between Maximilian Habsburg and Sigismund Vasa. The study highlights the importance of family connections in the politics of the time and Stadnicki’s influence on the course of events, despite his lack of leadership position. Ultimately, the article assesses the effectiveness of Stadnicki’s and the Maximilianists’ actions, pointing out the reasons for their defeat.
KEYWORDS: Stanislaw Stadnicki; Sigismund Vasa; Third election; Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Urszula Augustyniak
University of Warsaw (POLAND)
ABSTRACT: Projects for reforming the mode of free election during the reign of the first Vasa dynasty were discussed in the literature in terms of the circumstances of their creation, but without final conclusions regarding the possibility of their implementation and effects. The author of this article dealt with the issue of the possibility of practical application of these projects, the conditions necessary for their implementation and their potential effects in terms of political changes (legalization of the transition from a republic to an oligarchy or full monarchy) and social changes (acceptance of the separation of the nobility as a separate state), consideringthe progressive decentralization of state management and relations between Poland and Lithuania in the period in question.
KEYWORDS: Sigismund III; Vasa Dinasty; Interregnum; Free election; Electoral reform.
Bartosz Staręgowski
State Archive in Lublin (POLAND)
ABSTRACT: The interregnum is an exceptional time for the pre-partition Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During its duration, some institutions did not function as normal as the reign of the monarch, so it was necessary for the assemblies to develop certain rules of conduct at these times. One of the most important issues in this difficult period was security. In the resolutions of the province assembly, it was decided to establish own armed forces, which were to defend the local territory. The representatives of Vasa in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were elected three times. During each election, province assembly of Greater Poland, shared for the Poznań and Kalisz voivodeships, appointed soldiers who were to guard Greater Poland proper. How large were these enlistments, what were their characteristics and who were their leaders, as well as many other issues will be explained by the author in the article.
KEYWORDS: Interregnum; Local assembly; County troops; Home defence; Greater Poland.
Dorota Gregorowicz
University of Silesia (POLAND)
On 21 May 1648, the apostolic nuncio Giovanni De Torres reported from Słonim on the death of Władysław IV Vasa, announcing at the same time that the royal half-brothers John Casimir and Charles Ferdinand would be the most serious candidates for the Polish-Lithuanian crown. The papal diplomats frequently emphasised the universal wish of the nobility for a dynastic continuation within the Polish Vasas. At the same time, this was the first time brothers competed for the throne in early modern Poland-Lithuania. It could have caused concern, as everything pointed to a lack of agreement between the contenders, especially in the context of the then-ongoing conflict with the Cossacks. In this article, the policy pursued by the Holy See towards the election of 1648 is analysed, revolving not only around the personal choice of the monarch but also the issues of the war in Ukraine, the revindication of the Swedish crown, relations with France, Habsburgs and Brandenburg as well as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth’s religious policy. The diplomatic letters exchanged between the nuncio and the papal Secretariat of State, the correspondence of the Vasa princes with Innocent X and the sejm accounts constitute the historical basis for the study.
KEYWORDS: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; Royal election; Diplomacy; Apostolic nunciature; Papacy.
Julia Paduch
University of Wroclaw (POLAND) /Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (GERMANY)
Election 1648 from the perspective of Charles Ferdinand Vasa
ABSTRACT: Within the framework of the following article particular stages of Prince Charles Ferdinand Vasa’s fight for the Polish and Lithuanian crown will be presented. They can be considered as a contribution for the analysis of his failure. It will be possible thanks to this analysis to recognize manner in which independent events in the country and abroad impacted on the elections’ ultimate result. Various elements of candidate’s means of persuasion and their impact on a change of the nobility’s opinion will be analyzed as well. The choice of unsuccessful candidate’s perspective can help observe what kind of features and mistakes could discredit candidates for the crown in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
KEYWORDS: Election 1648; Charles Ferdinand Vasa; John Casimir Vasa; Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; House of Vasa.
ALESSANDRO BOCCOLINI
University of Tuscia (ITALY)
ABSTRACT: In June 1669, Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki’s election as the new sovereign of Poland marked the end of a complex interregnum initiated by the abdication of John II Casimir Wasa in September 1668. This period of political instability for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had attracted the attention of major powers, including France, the Empire, Muscovy, and the Holy See, which viewed Po-land as a bulwark of Christianity. This article uses sources from the Capitoline and Vatican archives to examine the figure and role of Cardinal Virginio Orsini, Protector of the Kingdom of Poland, during this interregnum period. It explores Orsini’s position, interests, and connections to the French court, positioning him at the heart of intricate political and diplomatic negotiations among Warsaw, Rome, and Paris, all aimed at securing the new king’s reaffirmation of his Protectorate.
KEYWORDS: Holy See; Poland; Interregnum; Cardinal Protector; Virginio Orsini; Diplomacy.
Aleksandra Ziober
University of Wroclaw (POLAND)
ABSTRACT: The article explores the art of persuasion during the royal elections in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth following John II Casimir’s abdication in 1668. Special attention is given to pamphlets, which served as key tools for shaping public opinion, often highlighting or discrediting candidates based on attributes like lineage, military experience, wealth, and political alliances. The study examines how cultural expectations, such as the Baroque emphasis on sensory impact, influenced communication strategies. It also highlights the interplay between political power and noble attitudes, as elites sought to preserve their privileges while selecting a ruler capable of ensuring the Commonwealth’s stability. By studying these elements, the article sheds light on the dynamics of political persuasion and the broader cultural and social factors that shaped the election process.
KEYWORDS: Royal Elections; Polish-Lithuanian; Commonwealth; Baroque Culture; Interregnum; Pamphlets.
Jaroslaw Pietrzak
Pedagogical University in Krakow (POLAND)
Livio Odescalchi and his candidacy for Polish throne between 1696 and 1697
ABSTRACT: In historiography, the circumstances of Prince Livio Odescalchi’s candidacy have been recalled, but so far there has been no comprehensive approach to the topic. The period after the death of King Jan III was a time when many competitors appeared among the candidates for the royal crown. The nephew of Pope Innocent XI, he was undoubtedly associated with the great idea of the anti-Turkish campaign and the involvement of the Papacy in financing the activities of the Holy League. Therefore, it potentially enjoyed fame and became a guarantee of further assurances from the Holy See regarding subsidizing the war. However, malicious people whispered that he was unable to offer anything to the Republic of Poland except an art gallery or saints’ relics. The e work aims to determine what the actual plans of the Papacy and Prince Odescalchi himself to claim the Polish crown were. Did the papal or imperial diplomacy really want to support his candidacy? The analysis of Vatican and Polish sources created during the interregnum of 1696/1697 will probably provide answers to the question of how the European powers responded to his candidacy, how the agitation was conducted to support him and what the Polish nobility thought about his candidacy.
KEYWORDS: Odescalchi family; Livio Odescalchi; Election; Candidacy; Interregnum.
GAETANO PLATANIA
National Institute of Roman Studies (ITALY)
ABSTRACT This article explores the aftermath of the tumultuous interregnum following Jan III Sobieski’s death, culminating in August II Wettin’s election as king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. His Protestant faith and perceived reluctance to conflict with the Turks raised significant concerns within the Holy See. In this context, the mission of Monsignor Fabrizio Paolucci, appointed as extraordinary nuncio to Warsaw, is crucial for understanding the efforts to unify a divided kingdom post-election and to assess the new sovereign’s initial actions. The study primarily focuses on Paolucci’s endeavours, drawing on previously unpublished correspondence between him and the Vatican’s Secretariat of State, alongside insights from Jesuit theologian Carlo Maurizio Vota, who served as secretary to August II Wettin.
KEYWORDS: Fabrizio Paolucci; Holy See; Extraordinary nuncio; Interregnum; August II Wettin.
Grzegorz Glabisz
Adam Mickiewicz University (POLAND)
ABSTRACT Research on the course of the last interregnum in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth has generally dealt with it from a top-down perspective. The political struggle between the Czartoryski “Familia” supported by the Russian army and the republican camp in individual provinces was usually presented rather superficially. This article will attempt to do so on the example of the political activity of the nobility of the Poznań and Kalisz voivodeships. This was a rather interesting area, as it was dominated by middle-income nobility. None of the magnate families was able to gain the upper hand in this territory. The political struggle that took place in these provinces between 1763 and 1764 led to a major mobilisation of the local gentry and a split session of the sejmik in Śród, which was common to both regions. Both sides passed instructions in support of regime reform. Ultimately, despite a large majority, the supporters of the republican camp lost. The assembly of supporters of the Czartoryski “Familia” in the region was recognised as legitimate.
KEYWORDS: Parliamentarism; Stanislaw August; Political elites; Poznañ-Kalisz voivodeships; Interregnum.
VARIA SECTION
Matteo Sanfilippo
University of Tuscia (ITALY)
ABSTRACT: The English translation of an Italian manuscript on the emprisonment of Italia migrants in socialist Yugoslavia suggests numerous reflections not only on what happened there and then, but on the entire history of Italian political migration into Sovietized Europe before the fall of the Berlin Wall.
KEYWORDS: Yugoslavia; Soviet Union; Warsaw Pact; Goli Otok; Concentrion camps; Refugees Camps.
Michaela Valente
University of Rome “La Sapienza” (ITALY)
Amor libertatis e tolleranza nell’Europa centrale dell’età moderna: questioni politiche e religiose.
ABSTRACT: The essay aims to highlight some new interpretations that are emerging in the history of Central and Eastern Europe, especially regarding the tolerance and peaceful coexistence of groups of different religions and faiths (Jews, Catholics, Orthodox, Muslims, Lutherans, Calvinists, Socinians), while in the rest of Europe expulsions and religious wars were raging. In particular, the different readings of the Warsaw Confederation of 1573 examine the outcome of a political decision-making process. Retracing the history of tolerance and peaceful coexistence, without neglecting the numerous violent episodes, in that political-geographical area is important due to the centuries-old presence of different religions to explore political decisions. It is relevant to analyse the role of Poland, in particular, as a Christian bulwark to the Ottoman Empire. Recent studies enrich our knowledge of that area by analysing previously neglected documentation to reconstruct Poland’s transition from a refuge for heretics to Catholic Poland and then to its disappearance from the European geopolitical map.
KEYWORDS: Tolerance; Multiconfessionalism; Politics; Poland; Central Europe.
Susanna Piselli
University of Rome “La Sapienza” (ITALY)
I NUNZI DI PAPA URBANO VIII NELLA RZECZPOSPOLITA DEI WAZA.
Series: Acta Baerberiniana 5. Viterbo, Sette Città, 2024, pp. 201. Edited by Alessandro Boccolini, Gaetano Platania.